Session 2B

Since the first half of the 20th century, language aptitude has been studied as a predictor for success in second/foreign language learning. Most approaches to aptitude embrace a multicomponential approach. In Carroll’s (1964) view, to cite the most influential approach, each of four sub-components (phonetic coding ability, grammatical sensitivity, inductive language learning and rote memory) is required for language learning in a differential way. Later, the Carrollian components were replaced or complemented by other constructs, such as general intelligence (Sasaki, 1996), working memory (Granena, 2013; Miyake & Friedman, 1998) as well as affective components, including L2 motivation, anxiety, or L2 self-concept (Bialystok & Fröhlich, 1978; Cochran et al., 2010; Kiss & Nikolov, 2005). To date, most empirical studies in this field have been conducted with adolescents and adults. In this presentation, I discuss evidence from a second language learning context in primary school. A comprehensive test battery of language-specific abilities (phonetic coding ability, grammatical sensitivity and inductive ability), measures of general learning abilities (IQ, field(in)dependence), verbal and visual working memory, affective components (L2 motivation, anxiety, L2 self-concept), and L2 proficiency was administered. Two unrelated groups of learners were tested, (a) 174 10- and 11-year-old learners of French as L2 and (b) 637 10 and 11-year-olds studying English as L2. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were used to address the following research questions: 1. How many factors can be identified, and which dimension of cognitive ability do they represent? 2. To what extent are these factors associated with L2 proficiency of the students? An exploratory factor analysis performed on sample (a) yielded three factors that correspond to (1) general cognition and language-specific aptitude measures; (2) extrinsic motivation, including parental and teacher encouragement; and (3) intrinsic motivation, anxiety and self-concept. A confirmatory factor analysis on data set (b) shows that these components are valid constructs beyond the specific group and target language investigated in sample (a). Regression analyses with the scores of the three factors reveal that the first and the third are strongly associated with success in tutored L2 learning, whereas factor (2) is not revealed a significant predictor. The results suggest that for the primary school samples investigated, there seems to be no empirical grounds to distinguish between language-specific and general cognitive abilities. Moreover, the domain that can be most directly shaped by pedagogical involvement, extrinsic motivation and encouragement, turns out to be outplayed by cognitive and individual emotional factors (1, 3). To conclude I discuss further possible avenues of analysis and theoretical and practical implications of the results. References Bialystok, E., & Fröhlich, M. (1978). Variables of classroom achievement in second language learning. The Modern Language Journal, 62(7), 327–336. Carroll, J. B. (1964). The Prediction of Success in Intensive Foreign Language Training. http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED038051 Cochran, J. L., McCallum, R. S., & Bell, S. M. (2010). Three A’s: How Do Attributions, Attitudes, and Aptitude Contribute to Foreign Language Learning? Foreign Language Annals, 43(4), 566–582. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-9720.2010.01102.x Granena, G. (2013). Cognitive aptitudes for second language learning and the LLAMA Language Aptitude Test. In Sensitive periods, language aptitude, and ultimate L2 attainment (pp. 105–130). John Benjamins Publishing. Kiss, C., & Nikolov, M. (2005). Developing, piloting, and validating an instrument to measure young learners’ aptitude. Language Learning, 55(1), 99–150. Miyake, A., & Friedman, N. P. (1998). Individual differences in second language proficiency: Working memory as language aptitude. In Foreign language learning: Psycholinguistic studies on training and retention (pp. 339–364). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Sasaki, M. (1996). Second Language Proficiency, Foreign Language Aptitude, and Intelligence Quantitative and Qualitative Analyses. Peter Lang. Skehan, P. (1998). A cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford University Press.

Recently, there has been an upsurge of interest in the effect of spacing for L2 learning both in classroom and lab settings, and some researchers have emphasized that time distribution of L2 practice is a fundamental aspect to consider in SLA (DeKeyser, 2017). In cognitive psychology, research on spacing has a long tradition and it has continuously demonstrated that spacing repetitions of the items to be learned is better than presenting the repetitions subsequently one after the other (spacing effect). Moreover, when material is learned over multiple sessions, it is claimed that longer-spaced sessions promote more learning than shorter-spaced ones (lag-effect). In the case of L2 learning, while some studies support the spacing/lag effects, others show no differences between differently spaced conditions or even suggest an advantage for more concentrated time distributions. The conflicting results in the SLA field might be related to the different type of knowledge or language skill being targeted (Li & DeKeyser, 2019). Similarly, individual differences in cognitive abilities might moderate the effectiveness of different types of L2 learning schedules (Kasprowicz et al., 2019; Suzuki, 2019). The aim of the present study is to contribute to this line of research by examining incidental vocabulary learning through repeated reading in two different spacing conditions. The second objective is to analyze whether vocabulary gains are related to reading patterns and to other individual differences. Forty Spanish college students read the same text in English three times on a computer with an eye-tracker (Tobii 120) either in a massed condition (one single session), or a spaced condition (three sessions over three weeks). The text included 12 low-frequency words, which were tested through a multiple choice test before the treatment (pretest), right after the treatment (immediate posttest), and one week after the treatment (delayed posttest). Reading patterns were analyzed through different eye-tracking measures, which included total fixation duration, number of fixations and average fixation duration. Learners' working memory was assessed through a reading span task, while the Llama B and Llama D tests (Meara, 2005) were used to examine aptitude. The results of the t-tests suggest that there were no differences in relative gains in vocabulary between the two conditions immediately after the treatment, but there were differences in favor of the spaced group on the delayed posttest, which can be attributed to learners' engagement in intentional learning of the target words (according to some learners' informal reports). There were no correlations between vocabulary gains and participants' reading behavior or language learning aptitude. However, vocabulary gains in the spaced condition correlated significantly with the scores of the reading span task, which suggests that long intersession intervals might prevent incidental vocabulary learning through repeated reading in the case of learners with lower working memory capacity. More research should be performed on how individual differences are related to learning outcomes in different spacing conditions. References DeKeyser, R. (2017). Knowledge and skill in ISLA. In S. Loewen and M. Sato (eds.). Routledge Handbook of Instructed Second Language Acquisition. London: Routledge, 15-32. Kasprowicz, R., Mardsen, E., Shephton, N. (2019). Investigating distribution of practice effects for the learning of foreign language verb morphology in the young learner classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 103, 580-606. Li, M., & DeKeyser, R. (2019). Distribution of practice effects in the acquisition and retention of L2 Mandarin tonal word production. The Modern Language Journal, 103, 607-628. Meara, P. (2005). LLAMA Language Aptitude Tests. The Manual. University of Wales Swansea. Suzuki, Y. (2019). Individualization of practice distribution in second language grammar learning. The role of metalinguistic rule rehearsal and working memory capacity. Journal of Second Language Studies, 2, 169-196.

The vital role of the emotional dimensions of second language acquisition (SLA) has been widely acknowledged and led to an emotional turn in the field (Dewaele, 2019; Resnik & Schallmoser, 2019). MacIntyre and Gregersen (2012) turned over a new leaf, especially, when stressing the need for investigating foreign language (LX) learners' emotions holistically. Their introduction of Positive Psychology to SLA raised awareness of positive and negative emotions having entirely different functions when learning an LX: while experiencing negative emotions usually hinders progress, experiencing positive ones makes learners flourish and contributes to their wellbeing. Since then, the role of learner-internal variables, teacher-related variables and different learning contexts in learners' foreign language enjoyment and foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA) (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014) have been widely researched (for an overview, see Dewaele et al., 2019). However, no study to date has investigated links between the same emotions and LX learners' self-perceptions when using the LX, which is crucial given that previous research has shown that a majority of multilinguals report feeling different when using their different languages (see, e.g., Pavlenko, 2006) and that these perceptions change according to contingent factors like interlocutors and topics of conversation (Panicacci & Dewaele, 2018). Thus, the present paper specifically focuses on whether the enjoyment and anxiety experienced by learners in their LX classes can explain their perception of feeling different in the LX. Data from 909 secondary- and tertiary-level learners of English (LX) from the German-speaking world revealed that only 380 students reported feeling like a different person when using English. The enjoyment these learners experienced in LX classes was positively linked to their self-perceptions, explaining 21.4% of the variance. Those experiencing more enjoyment perceived their feeling different in the LX more positively too. Learners' FLCA was negatively linked to their LX self-perceptions and explained a variance of 31.6%: High levels of FLCA determined stronger negative perceptions of learners' feeling different in the LX. Qualitative data from 120 responses to an open question indicated that perceiving different selves in a negative way was mostly due to a lack of proficiency and, linked to it, being afraid of making mistakes. In contrast, increased self-confidence in the LX, feeling more international, open-minded and powerful when using English were the most frequent explanations given for a positive perception of feeling different. Overall, the findings demonstrate the crucial role of enjoyment and anxiety in learners' self-perceptions when using the LX and they too suggest that teachers need to focus on boosting their learners' enjoyment and on limiting their anxiety in LX classes in order for students to develop positive self-perceptions in the LX. References: Dewaele, J.-M. (2019). When elephants fly: The lift-off of emotion research in Applied Linguistics. The Modern Language Journal, 103, 533-536. Dewaele, J.-M., Chen, X., Padilla, A. M., & Lake, J. (2019). The flowering of positive psychology in foreign language teaching and acquisition research. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02128 Dewaele, J.-M., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2014). The two faces of Janus? Anxiety and enjoyment in the foreign language classroom. SSLLT, 4(2), 237-274. MacIntyre, P. D., & Gregersen, T. (2012). Emotions that facilitate language learning: The positive-broadening power of the imagination. SSLLT, 2(2), 193-213. Panicacci, A., & Dewaele, J.-M. (2018). Do interlocutors or conversation topics affect migrants’ sense of feeling different when switching languages?. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 39(3), 240-255. Pavlenko, A. (2006). Bilingual selves. In A. Pavlenko (Ed.), Bilingual minds: Emotional experience, expression, and representation, pp. 1-33. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Resnik, P., & Schallmoser, C. (2019). Enjoyment as a key to success? Links between e-Tandem language learning and students’ foreign language enjoyment. SSLLT, 9(3), 541-564.

Multilinguals often report feeling different when speaking different languages (Pavlenko, 2006). This phenomenon has been studied under numerous aspects. Yet, it is hard to capture the way these feelings surface, develop, or dissolve. Studies focusing on the age of acquisition and proficiency levels failed to detect a definite link with multilinguals' selfperceptions when switching languages (Dewaele, 2016). What we know is that the first language (L1) widely emerged as having a stronger emotional resonance compared to any other language learned later in life (LX), making it challenging for LX users to feel authentic when expressing emotions in it (Dewaele, 2010). However, a higher degree of LX affective socialisation can determine an emotional shift towards the new language, altering multilinguals' perceptions when using it (Pavlenko, 2013). With reference to the migration context, the psychological and cultural integration into the new society emerged as constraining migrants' sense of feeling different when using the local language (Panicacci & Dewaele, 2017). Furthermore, situational changes, like the interlocutors or topics of conversation, explained some variation in these self-perceptions (Panicacci & Dewaele, 2018). Overall, the phenomenon seems connected to the way people use their languages and how they perceive them. Do multilinguals' feelings of difference shift according to the social, cognitive, and emotional relevance of their languages? Considering that multilinguals as linguistically integrated entities (Grosjean, 2010), it is crucial to approach the investigation holistically, featuring all linguistic dimensions at play. Focusing on 468 migrants living in English-speaking countries, the present paper investigates whether their self-perceptions when using the local language (here the LX) relate to the L1/LX frequency of use with different interlocutors (labelled as L1/LX socialisation), as well as to the L1/LX perceived dominance and emotional resonance. Data revealed that participants' feelings of difference when using the LX were positively related to the L1 perceived dominance and emotional resonance and negatively related to their levels of LX socialisation and perceived dominance, explaining a total variance of approximately 8% on their self-perceptions. Conversely, L1 socialisation and LX emotional resonance showed no statistically significant result. Qualitative insights from interviews confirmed the emotional attachment to the L1 as the key factor linked to migrants' self-perceptions, regardless of the actual use of the L1 in daily interactions. Likewise, the cognitive orientation towards the L1 or the LX matched participants' self-perceptions when using the LX, where L1 dominants where more likely to report feeling different when using the LX. Hence, the actual emotional status of the L1 and the cognitive embracement of both the L1 and the LX seemed to matter more than their general use in social interactions. The implications of this research are of pedagogical and societal relevance in the field of foreign language acquisition, signalling what can be done to improve the experience of foreign language learners and users. Dewaele, J-M. (2010). Emotions in Multiple Languages. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Dewaele, J-M. (2016). Why do so many bi- and multilinguals feel different when switching languages? International Journal of Multilingualism, 13(1), 92-105. Grosjean, F. (2010). Bilingual: Life and Reality. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Panicacci, A. & Dewaele, J-M (2017). "A voice from elsewhere": acculturation, personality and migrants' self-perceptions across languages and cultures. International Journal of Multilingualism, 2(1):62–86. Panicacci, A. & Dewaele, J-M (2018). Do interlocutors or conversation topics affect migrants' sense of feeling different when switching languages? Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 39(3):240-255. Pavlenko, A. (2006). Bilingual selves. In A. Pavlenko (Ed.), Bilingual minds: Emotional experience, expression, and representation, pp. 1-33. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Pavlenko, A. (2013). The affective turn in SLA: From 'affective factors' to 'language desire' and 'commodification of affect'. In Gabrys-Barker, D. & Belska, J. (Eds.), The affective dimension in second language acquisition, pp. 3-28. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters